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INTRODUCTION TO ART:

By art, most people mean visual art or fine art. Visual art is human expression in a visual form. Traditionally, this has been quite narrowly defined as drawing and printmaking, painting, sculpture, and architecture. More recently, photography was included. while sculpture itself has overlapped with architecture in installation art. Contemporary art is not restrained by any concept of medium but rather draws its definition from the artist's intent.

ELEMENTS AND PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN

An orderly arrangement of elements using the principles of design
The principles of design help you to carefully plan and organize the elements of art so that you will hold interest and command attention. This is sometimes referred to as visual impact.
In any work of art there is a thought process for the arrangement and use of the elements of design.  The artist who works with the principles of good composition will create a more interesting piece of art it will be arranged to show a pleasing rhythm and movement.  The center of interest will be strong and the viewers will not look away, instead, they will be drawn into the work.  A good knowledge of composition is essential in producing good artwork.  Some artists today like to bend or ignore these rules and therefore are experimenting with different forms of expression.  We think that composition is very important. The following will assist you in understanding the basics of a good composition:

Basic  Elements -  

Line:

An element of art that is used to define shape, contours, and outlines, also to suggest mass and volume.  It may be a continuous mark made on a surface with a pointed tool or implied by the edges of shapes and forms.

Shape 

       

When a line crosses itself or intersects with other lines to enclose a space it creates a shape.  Shape is two-dimensional it has heights and width but no depth.

Categories of Shapes:

• Geometric Shapes-Circles, Squares, rectangles and triangles.  We see them in architecture and manufactured items.
• Organic Shapes-Leaf, seashells, flowers.  We see them in nature and with characteristics that are free flowing, informal and irregular.
• Positive Shapes-In a drawing or painting positive shapes are the solid forms in a design such as a bowl of fruit.  In a sculpture it is the solid form of the sculpture.
• Negative Shapes-In a drawing it is the space around the positive shape or the shape around the bowl of fruit.  In sculpture it is the empty shape around and between the sculptures.
• Static Shape-Shapes that appears stable and resting.
• Dynamic Shape-Shapes that appears moving and active.

Form is an element of art. At its most basic, a form is a three-dimensional geometrical figure (i.e.: sphere, cube, cylinder, cone, etc.), as opposed to a shape, which is two-dimensional, or flat.
In a broader sense, form, in art, means the whole of a piece's visible elements and the way those elements are united. In this context, form allows us as viewers to mentally capture the work and understand it.
Finally, form refers to the visible elements of a piece, independent of their meaning. For example, when viewing Leonardo's Mona Lisa, the formal elements therein are: color, dimension, lines, mass, shape, etc., while the feelings of mystery and intrigue the piece evokes are informal products of the viewer's imagination.

Space

Space is the three-dimensionality of a sculpture.  With a sculpture or architecture you can walk around them, look above them, and enter them, this refers to the space of the sculpture or architecture. A three-dimensional object will have height, width, and depth.

Space in a two-dimensional drawing or painting refers to the arrangement of objects on the picture plane.  The picture plane is the surface of your drawing paper or canvas.  You can have a picture plane that is a crowded space with lots of objects or an empty space with very few objects in the picture plane.  A two-dimensional piece of art has heights and width but no depth.  The illusion of depth can be achieved by using perspective.  This is the technique used to have your picture look likes it is moving to the distance like a landscape or cityscape.

Positive and Negative Space

The positive space is easiest to understand. Generally, it is the space occupied by your subject. Conversely, negative space is the space that is not your subject.
 The negative space is defined by the edges of the positive space and the frame or border (our third element). So, part of our negative space is bounded by the frame and another part is bounded by the positive space. Sometimes the negative space is completely bounded by the positive space. What it important also to note is that the negative space also defines our subject.

                 
The positive space is masked in black in the second photo.
The negative space is masked in black in the third photo.

Figure vs. Ground

Figure: The main focus of the composition (positive space)
Ground: The secondary portion of the composition (negative space)

The principle of figure ground is one of the most basic laws of perception and one that is used extensively to help us design our photographs. In its basic sense, it refers to our ability to separate elements based upon contrast--that is, dark and light, black and white. In this discussion, we'll expand this definition from one of simple biological perception to one that includes abstract concepts such as subject/background and positive/negative space.

               Figure                                       Ground 

Texture

Texture is the surface quality of an object.  A rock may be rough and jagged.  A piece of silk may be soft and smooth and your desk may feel hard and smooth.  Texture also refers to the way a picture is made to look rough or smooth. 

Categories of Texture

• Real Texture is the actual texture of an object.  Artist may create real texture in art to give it visual interest or evoke a feeling.  A piece of pottery may have a rough texture so that it will look like it came from nature or a smooth texture to make it look like it is machine made.
• Implied Texture is the where a two-dimensional piece of art is made to look like a certain texture but in fact is just a smooth piece of paper.  Like a drawing of a tree trunk may look rough but in fact it is just a smooth piece of paper

Value

 Value is the range of lightness and darkness within a picture.  Value is created by a light source that shines on an object creating highlights and shadows.  It also illuminates the local or actual color of the subject.  Value creates depth within a picture making an object look three dimensional with highlights and cast shadows, or in a landscape where it gets lighter in value as it recedes to the background giving the illusion of depth.

          

          Categories of Values

• Tint is adding white to color paint to create lighter values such as light blue or pink.
• Shade is adding black to paint to create dark values such as dark blue or dark red.
• High-Key is where the picture is all light values.
• Low-Key is where the picture is all dark values.
• Value Contrast is where light values are placed next to dark values to create contrast or strong differences.
• Value Scale is a scale that shows the gradual change in value from its lightest value, white to its darkest value black.

Balance:
Balance can be symmetrical ("formal"), where elements are given equal "weight" from an imaginary line in the middle of a piece. For the most basic example of symmetry, think of your eyes in relation to either side of your nose.
Balance doesn't necessarily mean symmetry, though. Asymmetrical ("informal") balance occurs when elements are placed unevenly in a piece, but work together to produce harmony overall.

                                       

There are three different types of balance: symmetrical, asymmetrical and radial. The human figure in this diagram is symmetrically balanced; the same on the left and right sides of a central axis. The tree is asymmetrically balanced; its branches are not distributed equally on each side but their total weight is balanced left and right. The sun is an example of radial balance; all its rays are equal in length from the center.

Proportion is the feeling of unity created when all parts (sizes, amounts, or number)

relate well with each other. When drawing the human figure, proportion can refer

to the size of the head compared to the rest of the body.

These elements are used to create the Principles of Design. Principles are the results of using the Elements.  When you are working in a particular format (size and shape of the work surface) the principles are used to create interest, harmony and unity to the elements that you are using.  You can use the Principles of design to check your composition to see if it has good structure.

ELEMENTS AND PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN CONFUSION
I will give you my current take on what is an element and why principles cause so much confusion. Space as a visual element is difficult to conceptualize and hard to explain.  Is it worth it?  Who needs to know it? I find it easier if we put some time into ways artists create an Illusion of Space (depth) (a visual effect). I have added a category.
1.  Visual Elements (the basic things that can be seen)
2.  Design and Composition Principles (arranging the basic things better)
3.  Visual Effects (ways to fool the eye - make an impression)
 An element is one of those most basic visible things.  In science, the elements are on the periodic chart (hydrogen, iron, oxygen, gold, sulfur, etc.).  All the complex chemicals are simply combinations of these (H2O). In art, it is an element if it is visible and there is nothing more simple or basic to define it.  It cannot be a combination of more than one thing and still be an element.  In practice, the elements are commonly seen in combination with each other.  For example, color and value are very different elements, but they always exist in combination with each other.  For that matter, color always exist in combination with "saturation", but nobody includes "saturation" in their list of elements, but value is one every list.  Go figure. This stuff is not logically consistent.  Saturation (intensity) sometimes shows up in the description of a principle, but generally saturation is neither an element  or a principle.
Principles are even more confusing than elements.  There are at least two very different but correct ways of thinking about principles.  On the one hand, a principle can be used to describe an operational cause and effect such as "bright things come forward and dull things recede".  On the other hand, a principle can describe a high quality standard to strive for such as "unity is better than chaos" or "variation beats boredom" in a painting.  So, the same word, "principle" can be used for very different purposes.

The first way to think about a principle is that a principle is something that can be repeatedly and dependably done with elements to produce some sort of visual effect in a composition.  I am not confident that any list of these principles is comprehensive, but there are some that are more commonly used (theme with variation to give interesting unity, simultaneous repetition with change to create unity and interest, devices to create depth illusion, devices to create motion effects, etc).
Another way to think about a principle is that it is a way to express a value judgment about a composition.  I am not confident that any list of these effects is comprehensive, but there are some that are more commonly used (unity, balance, etc).

When we say a painting has UNITY and DEPTH we are making a value judgments.  Too much unity without variety is boring and too much variation without unity is chaotic.  Unity and depth are examples of visual effects produced by the first definition of principle.

Principles of Compositional Design

The principles of design are the recipe for a good work of art. The principles combine the elements to create an aesthetic placement of things that will produce a good design.

Center of interest/focal point - is an area that first attracts attention in a composition. This area is more important when compared to the other objects or elements in a composition.  This can be by contrast of values, more colors, and placement in the format.

Balance - is a feeling of visual equality in shape, form, value, color, etc.  Balance can be symmetrical or evenly balanced or asymmetrical and un-evenly balanced.  Objects, values, colors, textures, shapes, forms, etc., can be used in creating a balance in a composition.

Harmony - brings together a composition with similar units.  If your composition was using wavy lines and organic shapes you would stay with those types of lines and not put in just one geometric shape. (Notice how similar Harmony is to Unity - some sources list both terms)

Contrast - offers some change in value creating a visual discord in a composition. Contrast shows the difference between shapes and can be used as a background to bring objects out and forward in a design. It can also be used to create an area of emphasis.

Directional Movement - is a visual flow through the composition. It can be the suggestion of motion in a design as you move from object to object by way of placement and position.  Directional movement can be created with a value pattern. It is with the placement of dark and light areas that you can move your attention through the format.

Flow/Rhythm - is a movement in which some elements recurs regularly. Like a dance it will have a flow of objects that will seem to be like the beat of music.

The Principles of design are the results of your working with the elements of art. Use them in every piece of art you do and you will be happy with the results.

Golden mean

The golden mean ratio (1.o x 1.618). The natural balance of design using this internal composition measurement has been proven to create a stronger balance and positioning of shapes within the golden rectangle. Bauhaus Design (a school in Germany that combined crafts and the fine arts, and was famous for the approach to design that it publicized and taught.) also weight in heavily on the golden mean ratio. They understood that the minds eye sees way past the image to experience pattern and symmetry within the complexity of image symbolism. The golden ratio is the most pleasing arrangement to the eye. Further more it is part of Gods divine plan to reveal His design of proportion to man that he might become closer to Him. The Golden Mean is the origin of all great design because of it's organic Fatherhood.

Leonardo DiVinci golden ratio

Observations of natural forms

For some artists, philosophy, literature and art itself is a source of inspiration. Drawing can provide a way of exploring concepts, bouncing thoughts around and expressing feelings that are

Difficult to put in  words. Traditional art forms often used allegorical figures and dramatic gesture, realistically painted, to express these ideas. Modern artists often use abstract means to express very similar thoughts.

                                                            

                                                      

Outline sketching

To put it most simply, outline drawing. You probably already draw this way; it is the obvious way to draw with a pen or pencil and is familiar from line illustrations that we see everywhere.

What Outline Represent

When contour drawing, we are focusing on the edges - the outside of an object or the line made by a fold or pattern. Don't get fooled into using the line to draw light and dark. The WEIGHT of a line, that is, how dark and thick it is, will make it jump out from the paper (if it is a strong, dark line) or sink into the paper (if it is light or thin). This is useful when you are trying to give the impression of something being closer or further away.

Pencil drawing

Pencil drawing is one of the oldest modes of fine art, which plays a vital role in creating the other styles of art such as water color and oil painting. It is the reflection of the visual art and a specialty in it self. Painting or drawing is the branch of the fine art and the artists usually practice the art of drawing as the mode of visual expression.
Most people think that pencil drawing is limited to the visual art as it uses a pencil as the sole medium of creating the art. Pencil drawing, however, involves many variations with the use of the pencil leads which one should know to understand the wonder works of the wooden tool.
The basic step to begin with drawing is to select the subject matter. There are immense subjects of drawing in the representations of various living objects such as plants, animals or the human portraits.
The sketches of the landscapes, places and sceneries may also be the subject in pencil drawing. There may also be the sketches of the landmarks like the buildings, monuments which are excellent architectural subjects. The artists with their own imagination can develop the skills of portraying the stylish art like the cartoons and caricatures.
Pencil drawing used with different shades, types and size of lead can provide the various options to contrast with the creation of art.
There are varieties of leads with different kinds of shades, which can bring out many variations in their application. This provides the option of creating the perfect shade.
There are also various drawing materials, which range from the papers in the inexpensive newspaper grade used for practice to the high quality ones which are relatively costly. The texture, hue and strength also vary from one type to another.
The aspiring artist should understand that pencil drawing is the basic tool in any form of visual art and the variations and the possibilities can be mastered as they develop their skills in the art.

Perspective                        

The meaning of perspective used in art involves creating an appearance of Depth.This emphasis on distance stems from it being a difficult and impressive effect to achieve, especially upon paper that is completely flat. Here we are attempting to convey a sense of reality with space and depth on something which has none. As such, the typical "art definition" of perspective has become: "the technique of representing a three-dimensional image on a two-dimensional surface."

Despite this, perspective in art became less about three-dimensional form than obsessing almost exclusively on that third dimension of depth. This is so much the case that it is commonly referred to as depth perspective.

Furthermore, perspective already exists while seeing in reality where no kind of flat surface is involved.

There are also perspective art forms that make no use of flat surfaces in their final states such as in interior design, landscape design, stage set design, architecture, sculpture or in any kind of display or exhibit.

With that said, "the technique of representing a three-dimensional image on a two-dimensional surface" does not actually explain what perspective is at all, despite any true importance that depth may have in one's art.

First understand that our viewpoint is simply that position we see things from.

With that in mind, perspective basically means the same as "viewpoint" and "position." For example, "It looks good from my viewpoint," "It looks good from my position" and "It looks good from my perspective."

Oddly, this meaning of perspective is primarily used outside of art.

So the most general definition of perspective is "a position in relation to different positions." (above) This example demonstrates the position of our eye in relation to the positions of objects.

Applying perspective to art, we do not necessarily mean the viewpoint of the artist in relation to the subject. More specific, what matters is the best perspective for the audience. A more universal "art definition" of perspective, therefore, is "creating viewpoints that best communicate a subject to an audience."

Perspective is about establishing "an eye" in your art through which your audience sees. So although perspective has been considered the most difficult subject in all of art, its concept is really quite simple.

For instance, something commonly seen in bad movies and TV shows are scenes where the camera is just stuck way on one side of the room, with all the actors on the other, and that's about it. But does it really have to cost any more time or money to put the camera over there instead of here to gain a more interesting perspective? A subject that looks good can look bad from a poor perspective and bad subject can look better from an improved perspective.

Thus, the audience's placement is as significant as the placement of the subject.

The Purpose of Perspective in Art

Art is more effective when an audience feels like participants in it, rather than just spectators of it. Perspective simply invites the participation of your audience by establishing their viewpoint within your art. Otherwise, the effect is to detach your audience on some level.

But what did "the technique of representing a three-dimensional image on a two-dimensional surface" have to do with anything?

By introducing a sense of depth, we create space and an extension of reality into our art, enhancing the audience's participation. It is when things appear real that they become real to their senses to some degree, even if below their conscious awareness. Perspective pulls the audience in, letting them experience what may have only previously existed in your imagination.

So regardless of your art form, if understanding how your audience sees it and participates within it is important to you, it is necessary that you understand how perspective works. This is something that nearly all professionals in the visual arts must deal with, ranging from film directors to bridge builders, or anyone else that presents imagery to audiences, customers or clients.

Although there is no reason we cannot have a subject in art called "perspective" about making a two-dimensional surface seem three-dimensional, this is still a somewhat limited and arbitrary thing to do.

The Goal of Perspective in Art

The real goal of perspective in art is that of creating a viewpoint for your audience that will best communicate your subject and serve its particular message. The methods for making an image look three-dimensional while on a two-dimensional surface only exist to further that goal. That things look totally realistic is not always our priority either. Yet, perspective contributes to all of these things, giving it a far more complete and important role than it had ever been given before.

              

One - point perspective                                                       Two point perspective

   

Linear Perspective is the method of using lines to show the illusion of depth in a picture. The following are types of linear perspective.

·         One-point perspective-When lines created by the sides of tables or building look like that are pointing to the distance and they all meet at one point on the horizon this is one-point perspective. To see an example stand in the middle of the hallway and look at the horizontal lines in the brick or the corner where the ceiling meets the wall. See how they move to one point on the horizon.

·         Two-point perspective-Here the lines look like they are meeting at two points on the horizon line.

Colours
Color plays a vitally important role in the world in which we live. Color can sway thinking, change actions, and cause reactions. It can irritate or soothe your eyes, raise your blood pressure or suppress your appetite. When used in the right ways, color can even save on energy consumption.
As a powerful form of communication, color is irreplaceable. Red means "stop" and green means "go." Traffic lights send this universal message. Likewise, the colors used for a product, web site, business card, or logo cause powerful reactions. Color Matters!

The Color Wheel

A color circle, based on red, yellow and blue, is traditional in the field of art. Sir Isaac Newton developed the first circular diagram of colors in 1666. Since then, scientists and artists have studied and designed numerous variations of this concept. Differences of opinion about the validity of one format over another continue to provoke debate. In reality, any color circle or color wheel which presents a logically arranged sequence of pure hues has merit.

Primary Colors: Red, yellow and blue
In traditional color theory (used in paint and pigments), primary colors are the 3 pigment colors that can not be mixed or formed by any combination of other colors. All other colors are derived from these 3 hues. 
Secondary Colors: Green, orange and purple
These are the colors formed by mixing the primary colors.

Tertiary Colors: Yellow-orange, red-orange, red-purple, blue-purple, blue-green & yellow-green
These are the colors formed by mixing a primary and a secondary color. That's why the hue is a two word name, such as blue-green, red-violet, and yellow-orange.

 Color Harmony

Warm Colors	Cool Colors
Red, orange and yellow are warm and visually tend to jump forward into prominence in a piece of design.	The cooler hues — green, blue, and purple — tend to recede in a design.

 

Harmony can be defined as a pleasing arrangement of parts, whether it be music, poetry, color, or even an ice cream sundae.

In visual experiences, harmony is something that is pleasing to the eye. It engages the viewer and it creates an inner sense of order, a balance in the visual experience. When something is not harmonious, it's either boring or chaotic. At one extreme is a visual experience that is so bland that the viewer is not engaged. The human brain will reject under-stimulating information. At the other extreme is a visual experience that is so overdone, so chaotic that the viewer can't stand to look at it. The human brain rejects what it can not organize, what it can not understand. The visual task requires that we present a logical structure. Color harmony delivers visual interest and a sense of order.

In summary, extreme unity leads to under-stimulation, extreme complexity leads to over-stimulation. Harmony is a dynamic equilibrium.

Tints

Every individual color on the Basic color wheel can be altered in three ways by Tinting, Shading or Toning. And that's before we even think about mixing two colors together.
Let's start with lightening the twelve basic colors to create Tints.
A Tint is sometimes called a Pastel. Basically it's simply any color with white added.
If you want to get a little more complicated, you can mix any of the twelve pure colors together. Then simply add any amount of white and you have created a pastel or tint of the mixture.
That means you can go from an extremely pale, nearly white to a barely tinted pure hue. Artists often add a tiny touch of white to a pure pigment to give the color some body. So for example a bright Red can quickly become a bright Pink.

Shades

So now that you know how to lighten, what's the easiest way to make your colors darker?
A Shade is simply any color with black added.
Just as with making tints, you can mix any of the twelve pure colors together. Then simply add any amount of black and you have created a shade of the mixture.
That means you can go from an extremely dark, nearly black to a barely shaded pure hue.

Saturation

Saturation is a color term commonly used by (digital / analog) imaging experts.
Saturation is usually one property of three when used to determine a certain color and measured as percentage value.
Saturation defines a range from pure color (100%) to gray (0%) at a constant lightness level. A pure color is fully saturated.

From a perceptional point of view saturation influences the grade of purity or vividness of a color/image. A desaturated image is said to be dull, less colorful or washed out but can also make the impression of being softer.

Color Systems

The color systems used by scientists and artists are entirely different. An artist will mix blue and yellow paint to get a shade of green; a scientist will mix green and red light to create yellow. The printed page in a magazine is yet another system.
It's important to define the two different kinds of color that we see in the world as the first step in understanding color systems. First, there's the color you can touch, such as the skin of an apple or a painted wall. These colors are part of the surface of an object. Next, there's the color you can't touch, such as a beam of red light and the colors produced by your computer monitor. Colors generated by light are part of one color system. The tangible colors which are on the surface of objects or on the printed page are another color system.

Subtractive Color System
Red - Yellow - Blue

Most artists recognize red, yellow and blue as the 3 basic primary colors. These primaries are the pure colors which can not be created by mixing any other colors. Secondary hues are the result of mixing any of the two primaries. Tertiary colors result from mixing the secondary hues.

Additive Color System
Red - Green - Blue (RGB)

Scientists recognize the light primaries of red, green and blue. When combined, red and green light rays produce yellow, blue and green produce cyan, red and blue produce magenta. Red, green and blue mix to create white (light).
This color model is used in computer monitors, television sets, and theater. Red, green and blue dots of light are creating the image. Where red and green overlap, you'll see yellow.

This system applies only to devices employing light, such as computer monitors and television sets.

The CMYK Color System
Cyan - Magenta - Yellow - Black

In the print industry, cyan, magenta, yellow and black are used as the primary colors. When you mix all the colors, the result is gray.

Color Symbolism Theories

Color conveys meanings in two primary ways - natural associations and psychological symbolism. No, it’s not mind control. The truth of the matter is that people are comfortable when colors remind them of similar things. For example, a soft shade of blue triggers associations with the sky and a psychological sense of calm.

Successful design requires an awareness of how and why colors communicate meaning. The source of these meanings can be quite conspicuous, such as those found in nature — red is the color of blazing fire and blood, blue the color of cooling waters and the sky. Other meanings may be more complex and not universal.

As a starting point, the communicative properties of a color can be defined by two categories: natural associations and psychological (or cultural) associations.

Natural Associations

 Occurrences of colors in nature are universal and timeless. For example, the fact that green is the color of vegetation and that blue is the color of the sky and water has been a reality since the dawn of humanity. These color associations are common to all people. Therefore, this symbolism is both timeless and universal.

Psychological or Cultural Associations

 
Color may generate another level of meaning in the mind. This symbolism arises from cultural and contemporary contexts. As such, it is not universal and may be unrelated to its natural associations. For example, green’s associations with nature communicate growth, fruitfulness, freshness and ecology. On the other hand, green may also be symbolic of good luck, seasickness, money and greed — all of which have nothing to do with green plants. These associations arise from a complex assortment of sources.

Furthermore, color may have both positive and negative symbolism. For example, although blue is the beautiful color of the sky on a sunny day, it can be symbolic of sadness or stability. Idiomatic American English reflects these traits in phrases such as “singing the blues” and “blue chip stocks.” Red is another example of dual symbolism. On one hand, as the color of fire and blood, it is an energizing, aggressive and bold color. In direct contrast, red is used for “STOP” signs throughout the world today.

Human shapes:

The figure has been revered as a symbol for perfection since the time of the Ancient Greeks, who modeled their gods in the image of Man. Christians, also believe that Man is made in the image of God, who is the ideal of perfection and goodness in the universe. Better understanding of the proportions, movements and nuances of the human form has always been important in Western Civilization that is why artists have chosen to make it the central focus of many works.

A common problem in figure drawing is getting everything in proportion. While there are lots of subtle differences between individuals, human proportions fit within a fairly standard range, though artists have historically looked for idealized standards against which the rest of us don't always measure up! In figure drawing, the basic unit of measurement is the 'head', which is the distance from the top of the head to the chin. This handy unit of measurement is reasonably standard, and has long been used by artists to establish the proportions of the human figure.
The proportions used in figure drawing are:
- An average person, is generally 7-and-a-half heads tall (including the head).
- An ideal figure, used when aiming for an impression of nobility or grace, is drawn at 8 heads tall.
- An heroic figure, used in the heroic for the depiction of gods and superheroes, is eight-and-a-half heads tall (beware of creating a 'pinhead!') Most of the additional length comes from a bigger chest and longer legs.
Comparison of male and female proportions
 On the whole the proportions are pretty much the same. I suspect if they weren't very similar the species would have died out pretty quickly. But I digress.....
Most of the time women are smaller than men with finer bone and muscle structures. That means that in art the woman is depicted with softer, smoother lines than that of a man.
A mans shoulders are usually the widest point on his body. For a woman, the widest point is usually the pelvis.
Due to a woman's ability to bear children, the abdominal section of a woman is structured differently than a man. Women have a narrower rib cage, but the pelvis is wider. The abdominal muscles are structured differently for a woman. The abdominal muscles will split when a woman is pregnant.
Generally women have a higher percentage of body fat than males, again, to accommodate pregnancy. That is why women are seen as physically softer than men.

Emphasis & Shading

Shading in art is important for many reasons. First, it adds realism to a drawing or painting. Next, it gives your work a sense of depth, or three-dimensionality. Most importantly, it affects the emotional tone and emphasis of a composition. Shading can also be used to emphasize certain parts of a composition and de-emphasize others.

Unit-5

Sculpture

     

Sculpture, an artistic form in which hard or plastic materials are worked into three-dimensional art objects. The designs may be embodied in freestanding objects, in reliefs on surfaces, or in environments ranging from tableaux to contexts that envelop the spectator. An enormous variety of media may be used, including clay wax, stone, metal, fabric, glass, wood, plaster, rubber, and random “found” objects. Materials may be carved, modeled, molded, cast, wrought, welded, sewn, assembled, or otherwise shaped and combined.

Elements and principles of sculpture

The two most important elements of sculpture—mass and space—are, of course, separable only in thought. All sculpture is made of a material substance that has mass and exists in three-dimensional space. The mass of sculpture is thus the solid, material, space-occupying bulk that is contained within its surfaces. Space enters into the design of sculpture in three main ways: the material components of the sculpture extend into or move through space; they may enclose or enfold space, thus creating hollows and voids within the sculpture; and they may relate one to another across space. Volume, surface light and shade, and colour are supporting elements of sculpture.

Methods of Developing 3-D Forms

• Subtraction: in sculptural terms, this means to cut away or otherwise remove material from a base block or lump to reveal and define the desired form.
• Addition: in sculpture, this means to add material onto a base block or lump, building up or assembling material into the desired form.
• Manipulation: also know as modeling, this sculptural method moves a mass of material into new configurations, without adding or subtracting any of the material.

Carving
Whatever material is used, the essential features of the direct method of carving are the same; the sculptor starts with a solid mass of material and reduces it systematically to the desired form. After he has blocked out the main masses and planes that define the outer limits of the forms, he works progressively over the whole sculpture, first carving the larger containing forms and planes and then the smaller ones until eventually the surface details are reached. Then he gives the surface whatever finish is required. Even with a preliminary model as a guide, the sculptor’s concept constantly evolves and clarifies as the work proceeds; thus, as he adapts his design to the nature of the carving process and the material, his work develops as an organic whole.
The process of direct carving imposes a characteristic order on the forms of sculpture. The faces of the original block, slab, or cylinder of material can usually still be sensed, existing around the finished work as a kind of implied spatial envelope limiting the extension of the forms in space and connecting their highest points across space. In a similar way, throughout the whole carving, smaller forms and planes can be seen as contained within implied larger ones. Thus, an ordered sequence of containing forms and planes, from the largest to the smallest, gives unity to the work.

 Armature (sculpture)

In sculpture an armature is a framework around which the sculpture is built. This framework provides structure and stability, especially when a plastic material such as wax or clay is being used as the medium. When sculpting the human figure, the armature is analogous to the major skeleton and has essentially the same purpose: to hold the body erect.
An armature is often made of heavy, dark aluminum-wire which is stiff, but can be bent and twisted into shape without much difficulty. The wire is affixed to a base which is usually made of wood. The artist then begins fleshing out the sculpture by adding wax or clay over the wire. Depending on the material and technique, the armature may be left buried within the sculpture but, if the sculpture is to be hollowed out for firing it must be removed.
Large representational sculptures meant for outdoor display are typically fashioned of  bronze or other types of sheet metal, and they require armatures for internal support and stability. For example, a large armature statue of liberty, the armature can be seen from below by visitors to the base of the sculpture's interior.

Casting and molding

These are used for producing a single cast from a soft, plastic original, usually clay. They are especially useful for producing master casts for subsequent reproduction in metal. The basic procedure is as follows. First, the mold is built up in liquid plaster over the original clay model; for casting reliefs, a one-piece mold may be sufficient, but for sculpture in the round a mold in at least two sections is required. Second, when the plaster is set, the mold is divided and removed from the clay model. Third, the mold is cleaned, reassembled, and filled with a self-setting material such as plaster, concrete, or fiberglass -reinforced resin. Fourth, the mold is carefully chipped away from the cast. This involves the destruction of the mold—hence the term “waste” mold. The order of reassembling and filling the mold may be reversed; fiberglass and resin, for example, are “laid up” in the mold pieces before they are reassembled.

PRESENTATION

Attractive plating or presentation of foods is, of course, always important, but it could be argued that it is ever more important for cold foods than for hot foods. Foods presented hot and steaming, directly from the sauté

pan or carving board, have an immediate appeal to the nose as well as the eye, but cold foods must rely more completely on visual impact to take their fir at impressions.

Furthermore, because there is not the same urgency in getting the plats from the kitchen to the dinning room before the food cools down, the cook has more time to arrange cold foods on the plate. This does not mean, however, that the most elaborate or intricate presentation in the best. "Keen it simple" is a good rule of thumb. Food is not made more appetizing by excessive handling.

Arrangements should be kept neat, but this does not mean that they must always be symmetrical or regular. As in the case of salads, a deliberate consualneus in the assembled with minimum handling and rushed to the table.

In the case of pates and terrines, careful handling is essential to the presentation. Slice them carefully and plate each slice with the best side up, To make neat slice, use a sharp, thin-bladed slicing, knife. Before each slice, wipe pate with a gentle sawing motion, using the full length of the blade. Don't force the knife straight down or make little jagged cuts; this will make the cut surface uneven rather than smooth.

If the cut end of the pate has discolored some what from exposure to cir plate the first slice with this side down. In contrast to pates for buffet presentation, slices of pate for a in carte service are often garnished with greens or other colorful items, which enliven the sometimes drab appearance of a plain meat pate. In addition, greens and other vegetable garnish provide a pleasant, flavor contrast to the somewhat rich, processed flavor of the pate or terrine.

Tart or piquant garnishes and accompaniments, as well as tart sauces such as vinaigrette or mayonnaise variations, help to counter to richness of pates, which are often rather fatty. This is why sour pickles and mustard are clan sic accompaniments for these foods.

Consideration must be given to the serving temperature of cold foods such as aspics, pates, and terrines. A common error is to serve these items too cold. At refrigerator temperature, their flavors are masked. Furthermore, their textures are too firm: the fat in pates and the gelatin in aspicis will both be firmly congealed. A little warmer temperature is necessary to enable them to melt pleasantly in the mouth.

To bring them to suitable serving temperature, remove individual portions from refrigeration and let stand at room temperature for about 5 to 10 minutes but no longer, remember the sanitation guidelines discussed earlier. This period is long enough to let them warm up slightly, but not long enough to give any possible microorganisms time to start multiplying. Keep in mind, too, that this short period of tempering applies only to these portions to be served right away. Whole pates from which portions were cut, for example, should be returned immediately to refrigeration.

CENTRE -PIECE

A centerpiece is an attractive item or collection of items arranged in an appealing manner, so as to enhances its beauty of buffet or food presentation. It can be edible or inedible.

The presentation pieces prepared for celebrations offer the chef the opportunity to display his talent. Creativity and knowledge.

He can use his imagination to produce a pieces. Marzipan. Chocolate,. pastillage, neugatine or sugar work in it's varied forms like pulled, molded, blowned or poured are used obtain the desired effect.

How food is prepared is almost as important as how it is prepared. Poor presentation of well prepared food lowers its value. Throughout history mankind has adorned and decorated food. Whether it was done to the extreme or very simple manner. Presenting food properly requires a high level of skill of knowledge and imagination. The key word in the presentation is balanced. It is a balance of size. Texture shape etc. the food presentation must be appropriate for the action and they should be a particular theme for the presentation. Presentation must complement the food, not distinguish or hide it. Failing to do this will need to the failure of the dishes. The centerpiece is not everything there must be a theme. The theme must be suitable both for the purpose of the work and for the environment where the work will be placed when where and what kind or banquet we work is to be used-and must be the theme that balances food.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE:

The centerpiece is not everything there must be theme. The theme must be suitable both for the purpose of the work and for the environment where the work will be placed. When and where and at what kind of banquet the work is to be used and must be theme that balances the food.

Throughout history mankind has adorned and decorated food, whether it was done to the extreme or in a very simple manner. Presenting food properly requires high level of skill and knowledge and imagination. The key work in presentation is balanced. It is a balance of size. Texture, shape etc. The food presented must be appropriate for the occasion presentation must complement the food, not disguise or hide it. Although food holds the spotlight in all buffer presentations. And the objective of buffet planning must be chiever visual beauty both in the artistic presentation of each item of edible food and in the arrangement of many dishes on the buffet table, nothi4^,,;* heightens the beauty of the buffet more than an outstanding centre-piece made of ice. salt or any other material. The guest should be able to identify the theme of the buffet at a glance, just be observing the decorations. The decorative display piece should be a work of art, always in good taste. The kitchen staff can use various methods and materials to enhance the presentation of the buffet. Many forms of decoration work exit. Including pulled, blown, poured moulded sugar, pastillage, marzipan chocolate and neugatine.

EDIBLE CENTER PIECES Types of centre pieces

Croquem  Bouchers:

Croquem Bouches, which translates literally as "crunch in mount" is traditional. French cakes served to celebrate weddings, anniversaries and other special occasions. They are often shaped into structures relating the event celebrated such as a church of a wedding or a basket for a baptism.

They can be decorated with marzipan or pulled sugar flowers

Croquem bouches are made of small filled choux bells joined with sugar cooked to hard crack stage minimum 155 C. The choux are filled through an opening made on the bottom or flat side with small round pastry tip.

The most common fillings are pastry cream or mousseline creams flavored to taste. They can be made into almost any shape although the conical form is the plost often made any have the easiest to prepare. They can be simply or they can be decorated with drags (candied coated almonds) and tolled neugatine. Pulled sugar or marzipan flowers can be used for more elaborated pieces and figures that symbolize the occasion can be placed on the top.

Neugatine bases:

These can be formed into any shape or size to create a base for the basic for the presentation. Line a sheet of neugatine in a genoise mold to the size needed. The base can be decorated with royal icing.

Some basic shapes and steps are followed to decorate croquem bourses. One of the more popular ways is to divide the pieces into two sections. To accomplish this constructs two sections separately and prepare neugtine columns or other types of division.

It is important that the two-neugatine buses one of each section be as even as possible so the furnished piece will stand erect.

Pulled sugar:

It is most commonly decoration medium in French pastry making. Sugar that is pulled in shining. Mouth of pearl colours can be shaped into any flower or leaf. These are essentially reserved for decoration.

Either liquid or powered food coloring diluted in alcohol is added to the sugar during the cooking. For certain preparations. Such as pulled sugar ribbons when more than one color is added to the sugar on the work surface after cooking, but before it is pulled.

When the sugar has cooled enough to be pulled, it is ready to be pulled Do not pull the sugar that is too hot. Form a sausage shape and pull the two ends until it is double in length. Pulling and folding until the sugar takes on a high satin sheen. It is best to pull the sugar until it is fairly cool to obtain sheen. If the sugar is not pulled enough it will be transparent and dull. If pulled to much it will be opaque and deform quickly. When the sugar has been properly pulled, shape it into a ball place it on a the marble or on a drum sieve under a heat source such as heat lamp (infrared lamp). The heat should keep the sugar warm.

The pastillage should feel firm, so it can be cut shaped and molded and without crumbling or feeling sticky.

Rollout the pastillage and cut it using any stencils and dust with cornstarch and allow it to dry several days. When dried off, dust the excess starch and attach the piece with royal icing and leave it for drying It is a very, taking process.

Pastillage can be painted with cocoa power alone. Diluted in alcohol Gradations of tinting can be acquired by dipping the brush in alcohol.

Blown Sugar:

This is not artistic as pulled sugar. A wide variety of shapes can be made from blown sugar such as loses fruits and animals. It needs a pump for blowing the sugar. Bring sugar and water to a boil, and then add glucose. Add coloring when the temperature is at 120⁰ C. Cook the sugar by folding it from underneath over into the centre. Shape it into a ball. The sugar is ready to be blown. The air should be blown slowly and carefully so that sugar expands evenly. Work near a eat source so the sugar malignances the proper temperature.

Bread Display:

The baking is one of the most important and colorful areas of culinary development. The bread can also be used as a presentation piece in the food presentation. The main part in presentation of bread is also balance. It is a balance of size, texture, shape, etc. The food presented must be appropriate for the occasion and there should be a particular theme for the presentation. Presentation must complement the food not disguise or hide it.

Charcuterie:

It is the art and science of making raw and cooked presentations of meat. With special emphasis on pork. The main centerpiece which we can be classified under edible ones is the sucking pig. This is mostly arranged in the centre of the buffet. Which reflects the foods and the presentation.

INEDIBLE CENTERPIECES

Ice sculpture:

It ranges from large-scale artistic works produced from a block of ice to small scale. Practical work such as decorative support for a dish.

The use of ice sculpture is widespread. For many other kind of events. Ice sculpture presents images. But the images are not everything. There must be a theme. Ice can carved in any shape. Size to figure that fits the theme or occasion for e.g. : For Christmas, there could be a Santa Claus; for an anniversary, a heart: for an Easter buffet, a bunny.

The best temp for ice carving. The ice not has large air bubbles not it can be too brittle size of ice. Quality of ice.

Ice for carving:

The important quality about the ice is its condition. The best ice is that which has been kept in a freezer at 5 C for about only one day since it is made. This is a kind of ice to be used for carvings. Do not use fragile ice.

Pluming of ice carving:

It must be sure that it is well balanced. The emphasis must be put on the subject of the carving rather than its stand. For e.g. when you plan figures such as fish on a wave or fish in seaweed. There must be more emphasis on the fish rather on the wave or seaweed. When you compose animals, it is best to express them in motion. When you plan an ice carving the figures should stand on a base. Which are at least 4-5 inches high.

Coloring of Ice:

To provide form high light of color on your carving use a separator funnel filled with appropriate food coloring the funnel is mounted above the carving, usually in a fish net hung from the ceiling and the coloring  is allowed to drip slowly on the carving. This is especially appropriate for the neck of a san the head of a penguin.

Tallow & salt display:

When deciding on the selection of a pattern for a tallow or salt display piece it is essential that the display piece choose match the theme of the food design or buffet. For e.g. a French restaurant serving French buffet would add effectiveness to the presentation by displaying Napoleon or Eiffel Tower. These should be covered with wrap when not in use as dust sticks to them. The person making the salt or tallow displays should have a photograph or a model of the piece to be made. The composition of the material used in making tallow or salt display depends upon the piece to be made.

To create sculptures:

For large salt dough sculpture, a good solid metal armature is needed to support the weight of the sculpture.

Cover the armature with aluminum foil to create desired shape cover aluminum foil with thin sheets or salt dough. Dry, repeat and dry again, finish details on the third layer of salt dough Dry and paint with brown cornstarch color or dust with herbs and spices.

This salt mixture is very brittle like a sand stone and can be carved into any shape required with a sharp paring knife or wood knife.

Jelly Logos:

This is an inedible presentation piece. Any type of designs or fingers can be made with the jelly logos. In making of jelly logos the main ingredient used is gelatin. The gelatin is mixed within water in a bowl and is allowed to set. Then place the gelatin bowl in hot bain-marie and let it melt slowly. Then strain it into a new bowl with out disturbing it. The melted gelatin should be crystal clear.

Draw the figure on the surface where it has to be made. Then pour the gelatin onto it. The surface should be on an surface and also no ripples should be found, and it should be of even thickness. Leave it for coloring.

From the figure where it has to be colored remove the transparent, creamiest color gelatin and melt on an hot water double boiler, when melted add the liquid or powdered food colours to it and pour on the surface and leave it for setting.

Butter sculptures:

The butter or margarine is used in making of various sculptures. The figure what to be prepared should have a skeleton made of wire molded into the required shape. Then to the skeleton wrap cotton so that it become thick. Now tie a bandage cloth so that position of the cotton doesn't move. Apply the creamed butter or margarine onto it and set it in the freezer. When it is set remove and give the final touches to the sculpture.

Thermocol Carving:

These are also inedible presentation pieces found in the buffet. The thermocol blocks are carved into various figures. Shapes and of different sizes. If the carvings are large the figures are carved on different blocks are attached to each other to make a single piece. These carving can also be colored using any synthetic colours, which enhances the beauty of a buffet or food presentation.

Vegetable and Fruit Carving:

Vegetable and fruits of all types are mostly used in the carvings. Any other major carving mainly supports these carvings. With these carvings they enhance the beauty of the presentation. Fruits like  watermelon is mainly used for carvings, on these different flowers, and figures are carved. And veg like ash guard. Pumpkins are used for carvings. In making of flowers for the flower roses different veg like carrots, beetroots, cucumber are used mostly these

Can be arranged as a flower  bouquets. Also veg and fruits  displays setup in the main food presentation area.

Wine and Liquor Displays;

These are also used as a centerpiece in the buffet or food presentation area. Different wines of a particular region or different regions can be arranged in a particular place along with the food.

Flower Banquets:

Flower bouquets with various kinds of flowers can be arranged with the food. The flowers, which have a strong small, cannot be used because they change the flavors and aroma of the foods. These also enhance the beauty of the buffet.